| POLITICS OF SOUTHEAST ASIA:
WHO GOVERNS IN SOUTHEAST ASIA? FROM REACTIONARY, CONSERVATIVE, COMMUNITARIAN, LIBERTARIAN, LIBERAL, RADICAL TO REVOLUTIONARY HEGEMONY AND COUNTER-HEGEMONY Rey Ty | ||
| The
approach used here is thematic across the region, not chronological or
historical.
Themes: respect for gods, nature spirits, order, elders, authority, community, monarchs, religious leaders, democrats, semi-democrats, tyrants, military in power, women in politics, nationalist and communist anti-colonial reformists and revolutionaries, mass democratic movements, NGOs, resistance and rebel groups, religious rebels, Nobel Prize winners, political parties, terrorist groups | ||
| Questions:
1. What patterns help explain why the Southeast Asian leaders became leaders? 2. Do you find any of them particularly heroic? Why? 3. What produced the conditions for the rise of counter-hegemonic movements and leaders? | ||
| I. Respect for Gods, Nature, Spirits | ||
| Duty vs. Rights | Priority of responsibility over liberty | Southeast Asia |
| Community | Communitarianism, Communalism, Fellows, Other-centeredness | SEA |
| Bayanihan | Helping each other in the community | Philippines |
| Nitu, Anito | Gods and nature spirits (Austronesian) | Insular Southeast Asia |
| Nat (Burmese) | Gods | Burma |
| Phii (Thai) | Spirits | Mainland Southeast Asia |
| Deva, Devata, Diwata (Sanskrit) | Goddess, spirits | SEA |
| Brahma (Sanskrit) | Indian God the Creator important in Therevada Buddhism that supplements Brahamanistic practices | Mainland SEA |
| Angkor Thom | Brahma image in temple | Cambodia |
| Shaman | Informal village religious leader; medium between the visible and spirit worlds; involves in healing and divination | Southeast Asia |
| Amulets | Philippine Anting-Anting, Buddha images | SEA |
| Aswang | A sort of human vampire the top part of whose body flies at night to feed on human blood and internal organs | Philippines |
| II. Respect for Customs, Traditions, Order, Elders and Authority | ||
| Mandala (Sanskrit) | Hindu-Buddhist concentric centers of power | Hindu-Buddhist SEA |
| Raj, Raja, Rajah (Sanskrit) | King | SEA |
| Deva Raj (Sanskrit) | God King | Mainland SEA except Vietnam |
| Datu, Dato (Austronesian) | Pre-Colonial Indigenous Animist King | Insular SEA |
| Sultan (Arabic) | Moslem King | Insular SEA |
| Confucius and Mandate of Heaven | Confucianism | Singapore; Vietnam |
| Ancestors | Respect for living and dead ancestors | SEA |
| Patron-Client Relations | Hierarchical society based on networking and social ties | SEA |
| Compadrazgo (Spanish) | Status of godparents: linking and formalizing hierarchical social relations | Philippines |
| Compadre (Pare) (Spanish) | Godfather | Philippines |
| Comadre (Mare) (Spanish) | Godmother | Philippines |
| Filipino-Chinese Chamber of Commerce | Power bloc that influences the presidency and policy makers alike | Philippines |
| III. Religious Leaders | ||
| Buddhist Monks | Even the king has to “wai” to monks and monks do not “wai” back to the king | Theravada Mainland SEA |
| Three Jewels | Sangha, Dharma, and Buddha | Therevada MSEA |
| Sangha | Monastic order | Theravada MSEA |
| Dharma | Religious Teachings | Theravada MSEA |
| Brahmin Priests | Brahminism supplements Theravada Buddhism; they perform the Brahminic (Hindu) Bai Sii string ceremony | Theravada MSEA |
| Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) | Powerful religious voice on societal matters | Philippines |
| Cardinal Sin | Outspoken Bishop of Manila | Philippines |
| Bishop Belo | Nationalist and democratic church leader fighting for the rights of the people | East Timor |
| IV. Rebel Priests & Nuns | ||
| Self-Immolating Monks | Act of Protest by Mahayana Buddhist Monks | Vietnam |
| Gregorio Aglipay | Anti-Spanish colonial; founded the Philippine Independent Catholic Church (“Aglipayan Church”) | Philippines |
| Conrado Balweg | A revolutionary Tingguian R. Catholic priest; rebel surrenderee | Philippines |
| Luis Jalandoni | Roman Catholic priest; International spokesperson of the National Democratic Front | Philippines (based in the Netherlands) |
| Coni Ledesma | Roman Catholic nun; International spokesperson of the National Democratic Front | Philippines (based in the Netherlands) |
| Edicio de la Torre | Roman Catholic priest; Founder of the underground Christians for National Liberation; rebel returnee | Philippines |
| IV. “Semi-Democrats,” Authoritarian and Totalitarian Rulers, Dictators and Tyrants | ||
| Ne Win | Military guy who deposed U Nu in 1958 and ruled until 1988; dominated the government from 1962 to 1988, first as military ruler, then as president, and later as political kingmaker | Burma |
| Ferdinand Marcos | Dictator; more than 10,000 documented cases of human rights victims; ruled 1965-1986 | Philippines |
| Lee Kuan Yew | Long-time prime minister 1963-1990; now Senior Adviser | Singapore |
| Suharto | Crushed the 1965 coup; took over presidency from Sukarno; President from 1965-1998; Smiling General; forced to resign by protests; under house arrest and charged with corrpution | Indonesia |
| Mahathir | Long-time Prime Minister | Malaysia |
| Lon Nol | 1970 rightist coup against Sihanouk | Cambodia |
| Suphanuvong | Anti-French and Anti-American “Red Prince” | Laos |
| “Fine City” | The city with so many fines for all kinds of illegal acts | Singapore |
| Hun Sen | Khmer Rouge member 1970; fled to Vietnam 1977; returned with Vietnamese invasion as Foreign Minister 1979-85; Premier 1985-93; second premier, 1993-98; sole premier since 1998; most powerful person | Cambodia |
| Fidel V. Ramos | Dictator Marcos’ Constabulary chief; joined coup 1986 to oust Marcos; president 1992-1998 | Philippines |
| Joseph “Erap” Estrada | Former movie actor; president 1998; People Power ousted him 2001 | Philippines |
| Prince Ranariddh | President of the National Assembly | Cambodia |
| Chea Sim of the CPP | President of the Senate | Cambodia |
| Gen. Than Schwe | Prime Minister and Chairman of the State Peace and Development Council Sr. Gen. Than Shwe (since 23 April 1992); the prime minister is both the chief of state and head of government | Burma |
| Goh Chok Tong | Prime minister; Head of government since 28 November 1990 | Singapore |
| President | Chief of state; Sellapan Rama (S. R.) NATHAN (since 1 September 1999) | Singapore |
| V. Military in Power | ||
| SLORC | State Law and Order Restoration Council | Burma |
| SPDC | State Peace and Democracy Council | Burma |
| Fidel Ramos | Constabulary Chief; coup against Marcos; later President | Philippines |
| Gringo Honasan | Coup plotter; later Senator | Philippines |
| General Wiranto | Komnas Ham claims that he is responsible for human rights abuses in East Timor | Indonesia |
| V. Reformists, Revolutionaries and Nationalists | ||
| Jose Rizal | Chinese-Filipino reformist; national hero | Spanish Philippines |
| Andres Bonifacio | Nationalist revolutionary; founder of the Katipunan; national hero | Spanish Philippines |
| Katipunan (KKK) | The anti-Spanish-colonial nationalist revolutionary movement | Philippines |
| Ho Chi Minh (“Uncle Ho”) | Revolutionary nationalist | Vietnam |
| Benigno Aquino | Former senator; assassinated anti-dictatorial democrat | Philippines |
| VI. Political Systems | ||
| “Democracies” | Multiparty system, elections (contestation and participation) and civil liberties | Philippines, Thailand |
| Transition to Democracy | Move from authoritarianism to democracy | Cambodia, Indonesia |
| Newly Independent States | Victory in the struggle for national independence; international recognition in 20 May 2002 | East Timor |
| “Semi-Democracies” | Vestiges of democracy (elections) but same parties or leaders are not replaced | Malaysia, Singapore |
| One-Party States | No elections or no civil liberties or both | Burma, Laos, Vietnam |
| Constitutional Monarchy | Democratically governed | Thailand |
| Monarchy | A sultanate ruled by the same family for 600 years | Brunei |
| VII. Monarchs | ||
| Datu Lapu-Lapu | Limasawa king who killed Magellan | Philippines |
| Prince Souphanouvong | Headed the nationalist communist Pathet Lao and sided with the Vietnamese communists | Laos |
| King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) | Son of the king in “the King and I”; modernized Thailand | Thailand |
| Raja Solaiman | Last King of Manila up to 1570 until Spain captured Manila | Philippines |
| King Bhumiphol | Beloved constitutional hereditary king of Thailand | Thailand |
| Sultan Bolkiah | Hereditary monarch; Sultan and Prime Minister Sir HASSANAL Bolkiah (since 5 October 1967); he is both the chief of state and head of government | Brunei |
| King Norodom Sihanouk | Hereditary monarch; later coalesced with Khmer Rouge; then opposed Vietnam-installed Hun Sen; then allied with Hun Sen against Khmer Rouge; a realist political survivor | Cambodia |
| Prince Ranariddh | Hereditary heir apparent | Cambodia |
| VIII. Mass Democratic Movements | ||
| National League for Democracy (NLD) | NLD leader Aung San Suu Kyi won; struggle against SLORC (and SPDC) which did not recognize NLD electoral victory & held on to power | Burma |
| People Power I | 1986 ouster of Dictator Marcos | Philippines |
| People Power II | Ouster of corrupt President Joseph Estrada 2001 | Philippines |
| Anti-Suharto Demonstrations | Ouster of Suharto in 1997 | Indonesia |
| IX. Women in Politics | ||
| Trung Sisters | In 40 AD, Elder Trung Trac & younger Trung Nhi gathered an army of 80,000 people to drive the Chinese from their lands. They chose thirty-six women, including their mother. | Vietnam |
| Gabriela Silang | revolutionary who fought against Spanish colonials | Philippines |
| Melchora Aquino (or “Tandang Sora”) | Secretly helped the anti-Spanish-colonial nationalist revolutionaries by providing them with medical treatment, food and accommodation | Philippines |
| Kartini | Reformist; education for girls | Indonesia |
| Cut Nyak Dhien | Acehnese anti-Dutch colonial heroine | Indonesia |
| Imelda Marcos | Extravagant wife of Marcos the Dictator | Philippines |
| Queen Sirikit | Wife of King Bhumiphol | Thailand |
| Princess Sirinthon | Daugther of Thai King & Queen | Thailand |
| Aung San Suu Kyi | Leader of National League for Democracy; Nobel Prize winner; Daughter of Aung San; under house arrest for a long time until international pressure helped lifted the house arrest order | Burma |
| Corazon “Cory”
Cojuangco
Aquino |
President 1986-1992; Wife of slain Senator Benigno Aquino | Philippines |
| Gloria Macapagal Arroyo | President; daughter of President Diosdado Macapagal | Philippines |
| Dewi Sukarno | Japanese socialite; nth wife of Sukarno | Indonesia |
| Megawati Sukarnoputri | President; Daughter of President Sukarno | Indonesia |
| Nikki Coseteng | Active anti-Marcos and nationalist Chinese-Filipino activist; now Senator | Philippines |
| Corazon “Cory”
Cojuangco
Aquino |
President; Wife of slain Senator Benigno Aquino | Philippines |
| X. Nobel Prize Winners | ||
| Aung San Suu Kyi | Daughter of Aung San; Leader of National League for Democracy | Burma |
| Bishop Belo | Important church leader who fought for national freedom and democracy | East Timor |
| Jose Ramos Horta | Professor; International spokesperson for national liberation | East Timor |
| XI. NGOs | Non-governmental organizations | Southeast Asia |
| XII. Communist Parties | ||
| Pathet Lao | Aligned with Vietnam; established the current state | Laos |
| Khmer Rouge | hegemonic then | Cambodia |
| PKI, CPM, CPT | counter-hegemonic (underground armed resistance against those in power) then | Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand |
| CPP | counter-hegemonic (underground armed resistance against those in power) now | Philippines |
| LPRP | The ruling Lao People's Revolutionary Party | Laos |
| XIII. Political Parties | ||
| Rak Thai Party | Thais Love Thais Party; TRT; party of current Prime Minister Thaksin | Thailand |
| Khwam Wang Mai | New Aspiration Party | Thailand |
| Cambodian Pracheachon Party or Cambodian People's Party | or CPP; Hun Sen’s and CHEA SIM’s party | Cambodia |
| PKI | Partai Komunis Indonesia | Indonesia |
| PNI | Partai Nationalis Indonesia | Indonesia |
| PDI-P | Partai Demokrasi Indonesia-Perjuangan (Struggle); Megawati’s party; left membership, center-right leadership | Indonesia |
| Golkar | Suharto’s (then) ruling center-right party; Habibie’s center party | Indonesia |
| PKB | Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa (National Emergence Party); centrist party of Abdurrahman Wahid or “Gus Dur” | Indonesia |
| PAN | Partai Amanat Nasional (National Message Party); Amin Rais’ party; centrist inclusive Islamic party | Indonesia |
| PPP | Partai Persatuan Pembangunan (United Development Party) ; centrist Muslim-based inclusive party | Indonesia |
| PBB | Partai Bulan Bintang (Star and Moon Party); center-right Muslim-based inclusive party | Indonesia |
| PK | Partai Keadilan (Justice Party); center-right Islamic exclusive party | Indonesia |
| NP | Nationalist Party; Marcos’ party prior to Martial Law | Philippines |
| LP | Liberal Party; Party of Benigno “Ninoy” Aquino | Philippines |
| KBL | Kilusang Bagong Lipunan (New Society Movement); Marcos’ political party during Martial law dictatorial regime | Philippines |
| Laban | Party of Cory Aquino | Philippines |
| PMP | Partido ng Masang Pilipino; Party of the Filipino Masses; party of Joseph “Erap” Estrada | Philippines |
| Barisan Nasional | National Front Coalition with 14-member parties; in power for more than 40 years | Malaysia |
| UMNO | United Malay National Organisation; Mahathir’s ruling party; member of Barisan Nasional | Malaysia |
| MCA | Malaysian Chinese Association; member of Barisan Nasional | Malaysia |
| MIC | Malaysian Indian Congress | Malaysia |
| Gerakan Party | Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia; Malaysian People’s Movement Party; mainly Chinese component of Mahathir’s National Front coalition; 200,000 members | Malaysia |
| PAP | The ruling People’s Action Party; in power since 1959 | Singapore |
| DAP | Democratic Action Party; Parti Tindakan Demokratik; Chinese based; main opposition party | Malaysia |
| Workers Party | Opposition party; its most important leader had been veteran MP J.B.Jeyaretnam who was its long-time secretary general | Singapore |
| Singapore Democratic Alliance | Opposition alliance formed in June 2001. It is an umbrella party which comprises of 4 opposition parties: the Pertubohan Kebangsaan Melayu Singapore (PKMS), the National Solidarity Party (NSP), the Singapore People's Party, and the Singapore Justice Party (SJP) | Singapore |
| FUNCINPEC | National United Front for an Independent, Neutral, Peaceful, and Cooperative Cambodia; FUNCINPEC Prince Norodom Ranariddh’s party | Cambodia |
| Political Parties in the Philippines | Meaningless; no clear ideologies; too many party switching; no rules on party switching | Philippines |
| Bayan Muna Party | Left-wing legal opposition political party | Philippines |
| Democratic Party | DP (Prachathipat Party); Chuan Likphai’s party | Thailand |
| Mass Party | or MP; CHALERM Yoobamrung, SOPHON Petchsavang’s party | Thailand |
| National Development Party | or NDP (Chat Phattana); KORN Dabbaransi’s party | Thailand |
| Phalang Dharma Party | or PDP (Phalang Tham); CHAIWAT Sinsuwong’s party | Thailand |
| Solidarity Party | or SP (Ekkaphap Party); CHAIYOT Sasomsap’s party | Thailand |
| Thai Citizen's Party | or TCP (Prachakon Thai); SAMAK Sunthonwet’s party | Thailand |
| Thai Nation Party | or TNP (Chat Thai Party); BANHAN Sinlapa-acha’s party | Thailand |
| Thai Rak Thai Party | or TRT; THAKSIN Chinnawat’s party | Thailand |
| Liberal Democratic Party | or LDP (Seri Tham) no longer exists as a separate party; elements of the party joined the Thai Rak Thai Party or TRT | Thailand |
| New Aspiration Party | or NAP (Khwamwang Mai); no longer exists as a separate party; elements of the party joined the Thai Rak Thai Party or TRT | Thailand |
| Buddhist Liberal Party | or BLP; IENG MOULY’s party | Cambodia |
| Khmer Citizen Party | or KCP; NGUON SOEUR’s party | Cambodia |
| Sam Rangsi Party | or SRP (formerly Khmer Nation Party or KNP); SAM RANGSI’s party | Cambodia |
| Associacao Social-Democrata Timorense | or ASDT; Francisco Xavier do AMARAL’s party | East Timor |
| Christian Democratic Party of Timor | or PDC; Antonio XIMENES]; | East Timor |
| Christian Democratic Union of Timor | or UDC; Vicente da Silva GUTERRES]; | East Timor |
| Democratic Party | or PD; Fernando de ARAUJO’s party | East Timor |
| Maubere Democratic Party | or PDM; leader NA’s party | East Timor |
| People's Party of Timor | or PPT; Jacob XAVIER’s party | East Timor |
| Revolutionary Front of Independent East Timor | or FRETILIN; Lu OLO’s party | East Timor |
| Social Democrat Party of East Timor | or PSD; Mario CARRASCALAO’s party | East Timor |
| Socialist Party of Timor | or PST; leader NA’s party | East Timor |
| Sons of the Mountain Warriors (also known as Association of Timorese Heroes) | or KOTA; Clementino dos Reis AMARAL’s party | East Timor |
| Timor Democratic Union | or UDT; Joao CARRASCALAO’s party | East Timor |
| Timor Labor Party | or TRABALHISTA; Paulo Freitas DA SILVA’s party | East Timor |
| Timorese Nationalist Party | or PNT; Abilio ARAUJO’s party | East Timor |
| Timorese Popular Democratic Association | or APODETI; Frederico Almeida Santos COSTA’s party | East Timor |
| XIV. Resistance Movements & Their Leaders | ||
| Aung San | Anti-British colonial resistance leader | Burma |
| Ho Chi Minh (“Uncle Ho”) | Anti-French colonial resistance leader | Vietnam |
| Sukarno | Father of Indonesian independence; founder of the radical national PNI; after the 1965 coup, Suharto put him under house arrest until his 1970 death | Indonesia |
| Pol Pot | Saloth Sar; leader of Khmer Rouge deposing Lon Nol in 1970; “Brother Number One”; premier of Kampuchea 1976-79; responsible for the genocide “Killing Fields” | Cambodia |
| Xanana Gusmao | Rebel leader; now President | East Timor |
| Jose Ramos Horta | Professor; international spokesperson during the struggle; now foreign minister | East Timor |
| Jose Maria Sison | Professor; Founder of the Communist Party of the Philippines; now spokesperson of the National Democratic Front | Philippines (based in Netherlands) |
| Nur Misuari | Muslim professor; Founder of MNLF; rebel returnee | Philippines |
| Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) | Muslim underground movement in Mindanao; later joined the government 1996 | Philippines |
| Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) | Muslim underground rebel movement in Mindanao | Philippines |
| XIV. Terrorist Groups | ||
| Abu Sayyaf | Engage in kidnap for ransom, killing, beheading | Philippines |
| Al Qaeda cells | International terrorist ring under Osama bin Laden | Southeast Asia |
| XV. Regional Organization | ||
| ASEAN | Association of Southeast Asian Nations | SEA |